1. Can anyone explain chi-squared tests in a way that makes more sense? 2. Can continuous variation also be explained? 3. What is the most precise way of predetermining the alleles of offspring?
In response to your first question, I was wondering the same thing and ended up finding a source that explains the concept in a slightly less confusing manner, it helped me and I just wanted to pass it along!
In response to your second question, I found that continuous variation is a complete range of measurements from one extreme to the other. Examples of continuous variation includes weight, height and shoe size. Hope this helped :)
To answer your third question, the most precise way is to know the parents alleles and then to use a punnet square with all of the possibilities to determine the likelihood of the offspring receiving said trait.
1. How does the process of nuclei fusion when two haploids become a diploid work? 2.What is continuous variation and how is it different from discrete? 3. Can someone better explain the process of completing a chi-squared test?
In response to your third question, I had been wondering the same thing and ended up doing a bit of research and finding a great source that thoroughly explains the concept in a slightly less confusing manner, it really helped me understand the concept better and I just wanted to pass it along so I hope this helps!
Continuous variation is when a the trait of an organism can be anything within a range of traits, for example height is one of these traits. Discrete variation is when the trait of an organism is one or the other, for example that cool hand thing Mrs. Mullen showed us.
In response to your second question, I found that continuous variation is the combined effects of many genes and is often significantly affected by environmental influences.
In response to your third question, I will try my best to explain chi-squared tables. 1) Make a table with the variables at the top and Observed and Expected on the left side. (Observed is the # you found in your experiment. Expected is your total # of results multiplied by the % your Punnett square predicted for that variable) 2) Find the degree of freedom. The degree of freedom is the amount of numbers that can vary in a given data set that can change but will still get you the mean that you want with your calculations. The equation for it is (n-1) because the final number of the set must be a specific number so that your answer is correct. (So if you have 4 variables being tested, the degree of freedom is 4 because 5-1=4) 3) Find the critical region for the chi-squared. This is a number that if the calculated chi-squared number is higher than, then the null hypothesis will be rejected. The way to find the critical region is to look at a chi-squared table and find the # that matches up with your degree of freedom and the significance level (likelihood of rejecting the null hypothesis). (The textbook has one for their example) 4) Use the equation X^2=summation of (observed value-expected value)^2/(expected value). I hope this helps a little bit and I got most of this information from the textbook, googling terms, and these 3 websites: https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/chi-square/ https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/hypothesis-testing/degrees-of-freedom/ https://www.statisticshowto.com/how-to-find-a-critical-chi-square-value/
In response to question one, the process of nuclei fusion is specifically called Karyogamy. It has it's own wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karyogamy#:~:text=Karyogamy%20is%20the%20final%20step,copy%20of%20the%20organism's%20genome. In short basically they combine.
1.What of the 4,000 genetic disorders is the most common? 2.Can someone explain what the mendelian ratio is used for? 3.Can someone also go into detail on what chiasmata are?
In response to your third question, chiasmata are where sister chromatids bind during crossing over in prophase I of meiosis. They hold the pair of chromatids together throughout prophase I until anaphase I begins.
For your second question, Mendelian ratios express the proportions of different genotypes in the offspring of parents of particular combinations of genotypes. https://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/a-z/Mendelian_ratios.asp#:~:text=Mendelian%20ratios%20express%20the%20proportions,of%20particular%20combinations%20of%20genotypes.&text=They%20combine%20to%20produce%20AA,is%20therefore%20100%25%20AA%20offspring.
To help answer your 1st question here is an article with a list of the 7 most common genetic disorders: https://www.sonashomehealth.com/most-common-genetic-disorders/
1. The textbook mentioned the Mendelian ratio multiple time, what exactly is that ratio? 2. How many autosomal gene linkage do humans have? 3.Can co-dominant genes be dangerous or do they just cause small changes?
In response to your second question, I found that humans have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Autosomes are paired based on their size. In regards to autosomal gene linkage this is all that I could find :)
To answer your third question, just like with all things, there is a chance that it is dangerous. However, typically that danger comes from the environment (like appearing grey when the environment calls for black and white). There also times when it is beneficial like with sickle cell. So, I would say, it's usually just small changes.
For your first question, Mendelian ratios express the proportions of different genotypes in the offspring of parents of particular combinations of genotypes. https://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/a-z/Mendelian_ratios.asp#:~:text=Mendelian%20ratios%20express%20the%20proportions,of%20particular%20combinations%20of%20genotypes.&text=They%20combine%20to%20produce%20AA,is%20therefore%20100%25%20AA%20offspring.
1. What is the difference between gametes and zygotes? 2. What chemically causes an allele to be with dominant, recessive, or co-dominant? 3. Are dominant or recessive diseases more common?
In response to your first question, a gamete is a haploid cell produced as a result of meiosis and holds half of the parent's genes. A zygote is a diploid cell created by two gametes meeting and fusing together that will eventually grow into the organism.
Typically recessive diseases are more common as they would only remove people with two genes and thus there is a higher chance the disease would be passed on.
In response to your second question, dominance of an allele is largely determined by the protein that the allele codes for being better or worse at their purpose than possible variations. Co-dominance most likely has two proteins that complete their purposes just as well in separate ways.
In response to question three, the chi-square is used to determine the likelihood of traits being linked on a chromosome. However, I have no idea how the chi-square actually works.
In response to question 2, as of right now, there are no treatments that can cure Huntington's disease. However, as with many diseases like this, there are medications that can lessen the pain and relieve some of the symptoms that the dominant-genetic disease causes. There are drugs that have been approved to treat the involuntary movements, termed chorea, that Huntington's Disease can cause. One of the most popular drugs that treats this is called Xenazine, which has been approved specifically for Huntington's patients. Psychiatric medications can also be prescribed to help manage the emotions and behaviors that come as a result of the disease. These medications can include antidepressants, antipsychotics, and other mood-stabilizing drugs. Source: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/huntingtons-disease/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20356122
To answer your 2nd question, there are no current treatments to prevent or cure Huntington's Disease, only treatments for the symptoms. Here is a website with an overview of Huntington's: https://www.medicinenet.com/huntington_disease/article.htm
To answer your first question, different types of radiation causes mutations in different types of ways. Ionizing radiation causes double-stranded breaks in the DNA. Ultraviolet radiation causes dimerization of thymidine residues in DNA and the defective repair of the residues is what causes the mutation.
1. Are there any genetic mutations that can occur on the Y chromosome? 2. Can somebody please explain chi-squared better my brain is too tired to interpret words. 3. Going off of one of the side things in the book, what is the effects of the genetic disease that Abraham Lincoln supposedly had?
1) The first thing that came to my mind was the article that we read in class about the SRY gene. If there is a mutation on this gene on the Y chromosome, the embryo can develop as a biological female despite having the XY chromosomes that males have. To go beyond this, I found this quick source: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/huntingtons-disease/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20356122 Many problems with male infertility are due to mutations on the Y chromosome. Diseases that impact bone growth and mature development are impacted by mutations in the SHOX gene (which is found on both the X and the Y chromosome). Finally, one disease that is specifically linked to the Y chromosome is Retinitis Pigmentosa. This disease impacts the RPY gene on the Y chromosome and results in vision impairment. It is specifically Y-linked.
1) Can someone explain how genetic diseases can be caused by co-dominant alleles? I understand dominant and recessive, but this concept is a bit harder for me to grasp. 2) Can someone clarify the differences between linked and unlinked genes, and how this impacts patterns of inheritance? 3) Can crossing over be predicted, or will the traits determined by these gene sections always be random and unpredictable?
To answer your third question, there has been research done in which scientists are able to nearly predict all crossovers. For more information: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2813264/#:~:text=Our%20analysis%20shows%20that%20high,can%20predict%20nearly%20all%20crossovers.
2) Linked genes are located on the same chromosome and unlinked genes are located further apart. Linked genes that are close in proximity are more likely to be inherited together.
1) How exactly do you read those ratio things like Figure 7? Is it basically a punnett square? 2) What exactly is a co-dominant allele? 3) How rare are two spotted ladybugs?
2) I would say that the most common genetic mutation would be blue eyes. Blue eyes began as a mutation thousands of years ago, and now tons of people have them!
3) From what I understand, mutations can only be inherited if it is passed through egg or sperm cells. These are called somatic mutations. Maybe this link will help?
2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_sWbQadFCso (this video might help) A co-dominant allele allows the alleles from each parent to be expressed, rather than allowing for only one phenotype to be expressed. For example, I think that the textbook mentioned the color of flower petals as an example. Rather than the offspring of a red and a white flower needing to be either a red or white phenotype, the co-dominant trait was expressed through the offspring being pink. This means that both alleles from the parents were expressed equally in the phenotype of the offspring; there were no dominant or recessive traits in this circumstance.
1) What is the least common genetic disorder? What does it effect? 2) Why is gene crossing over random? What would happen if it were organized? 3) Why should we continue to educate ourselves about genetic disorders? What does it matter that we have a deep understanding of some?
In response to your second question, scientists have found a way to predict the crossing over of genes, using what is called a hotspot map. A hotspot is where genetic crossovers are tightly clustered. In this case, gene crossing over, in a way, has been organized.
For more information: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2813264/#:~:text=Our%20analysis%20shows%20that%20high,can%20predict%20nearly%20all%20crossovers.
1. Can anyone explain chi-squared tests in a way that makes more sense?
ReplyDelete2. Can continuous variation also be explained?
3. What is the most precise way of predetermining the alleles of offspring?
In response to your first question, I was wondering the same thing and ended up finding a source that explains the concept in a slightly less confusing manner, it helped me and I just wanted to pass it along!
Deletehttps://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/chi-square-statistic.asp#:~:text=A%20chi%2Dsquare%20(%CF%872,from%20a%20large%20enough%20sample.&text=Chi%2Dsquare%20tests%20are%20often%20used%20in%20hypothesis%20testing.
In response to your second question, I found that continuous variation is a complete range of measurements from one extreme to the other. Examples of continuous variation includes weight, height and shoe size. Hope this helped :)
DeleteTo answer your third question, the most precise way is to know the parents alleles and then to use a punnet square with all of the possibilities to determine the likelihood of the offspring receiving said trait.
Delete1. How does the process of nuclei fusion when two haploids become a diploid work?
ReplyDelete2.What is continuous variation and how is it different from discrete?
3. Can someone better explain the process of completing a chi-squared test?
In response to your third question, I had been wondering the same thing and ended up doing a bit of research and finding a great source that thoroughly explains the concept in a slightly less confusing manner, it really helped me understand the concept better and I just wanted to pass it along so I hope this helps!
Deletehttps://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/chi-square-statistic.asp#:~:text=A%20chi%2Dsquare%20(%CF%872,from%20a%20large%20enough%20sample.&text=Chi%2Dsquare%20tests%20are%20often%20used%20in%20hypothesis%20testing.
Continuous variation is when a the trait of an organism can be anything within a range of traits, for example height is one of these traits. Discrete variation is when the trait of an organism is one or the other, for example that cool hand thing Mrs. Mullen showed us.
DeleteIn response to your second question, I found that continuous variation is the combined effects of many genes and is often significantly affected by environmental influences.
DeleteIn response to your third question, I will try my best to explain chi-squared tables.
Delete1) Make a table with the variables at the top and Observed and Expected on the left side. (Observed is the # you found in your experiment. Expected is your total # of results multiplied by the % your Punnett square predicted for that variable)
2) Find the degree of freedom. The degree of freedom is the amount of numbers that can vary in a given data set that can change but will still get you the mean that you want with your calculations. The equation for it is (n-1) because the final number of the set must be a specific number so that your answer is correct. (So if you have 4 variables being tested, the degree of freedom is 4 because 5-1=4)
3) Find the critical region for the chi-squared. This is a number that if the calculated chi-squared number is higher than, then the null hypothesis will be rejected. The way to find the critical region is to look at a chi-squared table and find the # that matches up with your degree of freedom and the significance level (likelihood of rejecting the null hypothesis). (The textbook has one for their example)
4) Use the equation X^2=summation of (observed value-expected value)^2/(expected value).
I hope this helps a little bit and I got most of this information from the textbook, googling terms, and these 3 websites:
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/chi-square/
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/hypothesis-testing/degrees-of-freedom/
https://www.statisticshowto.com/how-to-find-a-critical-chi-square-value/
In response to question one, the process of nuclei fusion is specifically called Karyogamy. It has it's own wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karyogamy#:~:text=Karyogamy%20is%20the%20final%20step,copy%20of%20the%20organism's%20genome.
DeleteIn short basically they combine.
1.What of the 4,000 genetic disorders is the most common?
ReplyDelete2.Can someone explain what the mendelian ratio is used for?
3.Can someone also go into detail on what chiasmata are?
To answer your first question, Down Syndrome is the most common genetic disorder
DeleteIn response to your third question, chiasmata are where sister chromatids bind during crossing over in prophase I of meiosis. They hold the pair of chromatids together throughout prophase I until anaphase I begins.
Deletehttps://ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-10-genetics-and-evolu/101-meiosis/chiasmata.html
For your second question, Mendelian ratios express the proportions of different genotypes in the offspring of parents of particular combinations of genotypes.
Deletehttps://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/a-z/Mendelian_ratios.asp#:~:text=Mendelian%20ratios%20express%20the%20proportions,of%20particular%20combinations%20of%20genotypes.&text=They%20combine%20to%20produce%20AA,is%20therefore%20100%25%20AA%20offspring.
To help answer your 1st question here is an article with a list of the 7 most common genetic disorders:
Deletehttps://www.sonashomehealth.com/most-common-genetic-disorders/
1. The textbook mentioned the Mendelian ratio multiple time, what exactly is that ratio?
ReplyDelete2. How many autosomal gene linkage do humans have?
3.Can co-dominant genes be dangerous or do they just cause small changes?
In response to your second question, I found that humans have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Autosomes are paired based on their size. In regards to autosomal gene linkage this is all that I could find :)
DeleteTo answer your third question, just like with all things, there is a chance that it is dangerous. However, typically that danger comes from the environment (like appearing grey when the environment calls for black and white). There also times when it is beneficial like with sickle cell. So, I would say, it's usually just small changes.
DeleteFor your first question, Mendelian ratios express the proportions of different genotypes in the offspring of parents of particular combinations of genotypes. https://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/a-z/Mendelian_ratios.asp#:~:text=Mendelian%20ratios%20express%20the%20proportions,of%20particular%20combinations%20of%20genotypes.&text=They%20combine%20to%20produce%20AA,is%20therefore%20100%25%20AA%20offspring.
DeleteTo answer your third question, There is no inherent and they just cause minor differences in expression.
Delete1. What is the difference between gametes and zygotes?
ReplyDelete2. What chemically causes an allele to be with dominant, recessive, or co-dominant?
3. Are dominant or recessive diseases more common?
In response to your first question, a gamete is a haploid cell produced as a result of meiosis and holds half of the parent's genes. A zygote is a diploid cell created by two gametes meeting and fusing together that will eventually grow into the organism.
Deletehttps://www.diffen.com/difference/Gamete_vs_Zygote
Typically recessive diseases are more common as they would only remove people with two genes and thus there is a higher chance the disease would be passed on.
DeleteIn response to your second question, dominance of an allele is largely determined by the protein that the allele codes for being better or worse at their purpose than possible variations. Co-dominance most likely has two proteins that complete their purposes just as well in separate ways.
Delete1) How does radiation cause mutations?
ReplyDelete2) What are treatments for Huntingtons disease?
3) How is the chi-square used?
In response to question three, the chi-square is used to determine the likelihood of traits being linked on a chromosome. However, I have no idea how the chi-square actually works.
DeleteIn response to question 2, as of right now, there are no treatments that can cure Huntington's disease. However, as with many diseases like this, there are medications that can lessen the pain and relieve some of the symptoms that the dominant-genetic disease causes. There are drugs that have been approved to treat the involuntary movements, termed chorea, that Huntington's Disease can cause. One of the most popular drugs that treats this is called Xenazine, which has been approved specifically for Huntington's patients. Psychiatric medications can also be prescribed to help manage the emotions and behaviors that come as a result of the disease. These medications can include antidepressants, antipsychotics, and other mood-stabilizing drugs.
DeleteSource: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/huntingtons-disease/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20356122
To answer your 2nd question, there are no current treatments to prevent or cure Huntington's Disease, only treatments for the symptoms. Here is a website with an overview of Huntington's:
Deletehttps://www.medicinenet.com/huntington_disease/article.htm
To answer your first question, different types of radiation causes mutations in different types of ways. Ionizing radiation causes double-stranded breaks in the DNA. Ultraviolet radiation causes dimerization of thymidine residues in DNA and the defective repair of the residues is what causes the mutation.
DeleteSource: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/ionizing-radiation#:~:text=High%20levels%20of%20ionizing%20radiation,these%20dimers%20leads%20to%20mutation.
1. Are there any genetic mutations that can occur on the Y chromosome?
ReplyDelete2. Can somebody please explain chi-squared better my brain is too tired to interpret words.
3. Going off of one of the side things in the book, what is the effects of the genetic disease that Abraham Lincoln supposedly had?
1) The first thing that came to my mind was the article that we read in class about the SRY gene. If there is a mutation on this gene on the Y chromosome, the embryo can develop as a biological female despite having the XY chromosomes that males have.
DeleteTo go beyond this, I found this quick source: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/huntingtons-disease/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20356122
Many problems with male infertility are due to mutations on the Y chromosome. Diseases that impact bone growth and mature development are impacted by mutations in the SHOX gene (which is found on both the X and the Y chromosome). Finally, one disease that is specifically linked to the Y chromosome is Retinitis Pigmentosa. This disease impacts the RPY gene on the Y chromosome and results in vision impairment. It is specifically Y-linked.
1) Can someone explain how genetic diseases can be caused by co-dominant alleles? I understand dominant and recessive, but this concept is a bit harder for me to grasp.
ReplyDelete2) Can someone clarify the differences between linked and unlinked genes, and how this impacts patterns of inheritance?
3) Can crossing over be predicted, or will the traits determined by these gene sections always be random and unpredictable?
To answer your third question, there has been research done in which scientists are able to nearly predict all crossovers.
DeleteFor more information: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2813264/#:~:text=Our%20analysis%20shows%20that%20high,can%20predict%20nearly%20all%20crossovers.
2) Linked genes are located on the same chromosome and unlinked genes are located further apart. Linked genes that are close in proximity are more likely to be inherited together.
Delete1) How exactly do you read those ratio things like Figure 7? Is it basically a punnett square?
ReplyDelete2) What exactly is a co-dominant allele?
3) How rare are two spotted ladybugs?
To answer your 2nd question, here is a website article that explains co-dominant alleles:
Deletehttps://socratic.org/questions/what-is-a-co-dominant-allele
1. What is a co-dominant allele?
ReplyDelete2. What is the most common mutation?
3. Can mutations be inherited?
2) I would say that the most common genetic mutation would be blue eyes. Blue eyes began as a mutation thousands of years ago, and now tons of people have them!
Delete3) From what I understand, mutations can only be inherited if it is passed through egg or sperm cells. These are called somatic mutations. Maybe this link will help?
Deletehttps://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/mutation-8/
2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_sWbQadFCso (this video might help)
ReplyDeleteA co-dominant allele allows the alleles from each parent to be expressed, rather than allowing for only one phenotype to be expressed. For example, I think that the textbook mentioned the color of flower petals as an example. Rather than the offspring of a red and a white flower needing to be either a red or white phenotype, the co-dominant trait was expressed through the offspring being pink. This means that both alleles from the parents were expressed equally in the phenotype of the offspring; there were no dominant or recessive traits in this circumstance.
1) What is the least common genetic disorder? What does it effect?
ReplyDelete2) Why is gene crossing over random? What would happen if it were organized?
3) Why should we continue to educate ourselves about genetic disorders? What does it matter that we have a deep understanding of some?
In response to your second question, scientists have found a way to predict the crossing over of genes, using what is called a hotspot map. A hotspot is where genetic crossovers are tightly clustered. In this case, gene crossing over, in a way, has been organized.
DeleteFor more information: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2813264/#:~:text=Our%20analysis%20shows%20that%20high,can%20predict%20nearly%20all%20crossovers.