1. Is there a limit to the number of proteins encoded onto a strand of mRNA? 2. To what extent has the environment been proven to alter genetic expression? 3. Can the editing of mRNA result in the correction of improperly formed mRNA? 3.
To answer your second question, it can affect gene expression greatly. An example was shown in the textbook as the siamese cats gene expression is changed due to temperature. This results in the unique fur pattern that the cat has.
In regards to your third question, I found an article that talks about the fact that RNA polymerase is prone to making mistakes, approximately once every 1,000 bases. However, RNA polymerase is also very good at fixing these mistakes in the initial transcription process, before the mistakes get sent out as mature mRNA. It's hypothesized that RNAP can back up on the DNA helix and fix the wrong base pairs. RNAP has been observed to take many pauses during these turns, supposedly to fix these errors. THe article link: https://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/december3/rna-123.html However, mistakes that get past this will likely end up producing proteins that either can't be translated or are translated incorrectly, resulting it mutations that can have major medical consequences. I found a good summary of what occurs during post-transcriptional modification on https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/transcription-and-rna-processing/a/eukaryotic-pre-mrna-processing, but I couldn't find a process that specifically corrects errors in the code in mRNA.
1. To what extent does can the environment affect the expression of genes? 2. Why has gene expression which is dependent on the environment evolved? 3. Are there any treatments which put the human body through stress as to allow for a difference in the genes that are expressed?
To answer your first question, the ability of the environment to effect gene expression is so minute that for a very long time it has been considered impossible, and still is by many today. Only be recent data has it been found there is a possibility that this can sometimes occur. It is unlikely enough that the environment for the most part won't have any kind of notable impact on one's heredity.
To answer your second question, if I am understanding it right, is based on natural selection. Animals that could not adapt and change to their environment could not survive so gene expression would have to not be a permanent thing or else nothing would survive. That answer is a little bit reductionist, but that is how I understand it.
In response to your third question, I was unable to find treatments that caused a difference in gene expression. However, there are multiple diseases that are caused by changes in epigenetic factors. Examples of these diseases are autoimmune disorders, bone or skin disease, or cancer. Due to the changes in epigenetic factors traditional medicine and therapies do not work properly. This has led to scientists testing for an individual's epigenetic alterations and adjusting the treatment to the individual's genomic profile.
1. What is the purpose of introns? 2. Does transcription and translation occurring close together in prokaryotes lead to issues or is it equally as effective as in Eukaryotes? 3. What signals the end of the adenine tail when transcribing mRNA?
To answer your first question, there are many functions for introns, but the most common ones that I'm finding are splicing, sequencing, and positioning. For more functions: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3325483/
To answer your third question, The adenine tail is added to signal the mRNA that it is ready to leave through a nuclear pore. The poly A tail is not added one by one but rather a chain of 100-250 residues is added to the end of the mRNA through the addition of a poly-A polymerase.
For your first question, I found a great biology website that defines introns and explains their functions really well! Here is the link: https://biologydictionary.net/intron/
To aid the answers that people have given for your 1st question, here is a website that I found that defines and gives an illustration of an Intron: https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Intron
From what I can find, for your second question, this does not affect accuracy of translation, which makes sense because if there were a more accurate method, the less accurate one would have likely evolved differently to maximize efficiency. This website tells of other problems that can occur with accuracy and speed https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:854919/INSIDE01.pdf
1) What kind of environmental conditions severely affect the regulation of genes? 2) Is it possible for an offspring to "reprogram" DNA os are they simply stuck with the mutation? 3) Is DNA transcription very different in prokaryotic cells? If so what steps are different?
To answer your third question, there are no significant differences accept transcription and translation can happen at the same time and they occur in the same place (the cytoplasm).
To answer your second question, the offspring of a genetic mutation are able to reprogram mutations. The process is called reverse mutation and it can be either be a change of proteins or a change in nucleotides. https://www.britannica.com/science/heredity-genetics/Mechanisms-of-mutation#ref50805
For your first question I found that environmental factors such as temperature, oxygen levels, humidity, light, and diet can all impact gene regulation. Here is a link that goes into more detail: https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/environment-controls-gene-expression-sex-determination-and-982/#:~:text=Environmental%20factors%20such%20as%20diet,ultimately%20affects%20the%20animal's%20phenotype.
1. Is there anyway that the environmental effects on genes can be undone? 2. How many proteins can a single gene code for? 3. what would happen if the promoter sequence of a gene was damaged?
In response to your first question, yes the environmental effect on genes can be reversed. Epigenetics and environmental factors that change gene expression do not change the DNA sequence, only the way the sequence is read.
To help answer your 2nd question, almost 70% of genes require at least 4 proteins each. This also is dependent on which section was removed. For more information look here: http://www.iecb.u-bordeaux.fr/index.php/en/news/99-plus-de-100-000-genes-dans-le-ble-environ-30-000-chez-lhomme-nouveaux-elements-pour-comprendre-comment-un-gene-peut-coder-pour-plusieurs-proteines#:~:text=Depending%20on%20the%20segments%20which,at%20least%204%20proteins%20each.
To answer your third question, if the promoter sequence of a gene is damaged or there is a mutation, this is a problem because it is the sight that RNA polymerase binds to in order to start transcription. If RNA polymerase is unable to bind, transcription is unable to begin because RNAP synthesizes the RNA strand from the DNA strand. The gene likely will not make it into an mRNA strand and therefore won't be translated, which means the body is missing some of the proteins it needs. I hope this helps!
1. Why did eukaryotes develop introns? 2. Can the intron for one protein be an exon in another protein? 3. How common is it for an epigenetic factor to be passed down to a child?
In response to your first question, I found that eukaryotic cells need introns in order for the cell to produce multiple different types of proteins. This website goes into great detail about introns :) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4742320/#:~:text=Introns%20are%20crucial%20because%20the,gene%20in%20a%20eukaryotic%20cell.
For your third question, I was looking to find a percentage but instead found that it is indeed quite common. I also found a couple of websites to support and go into detail a lot of the effects the environment has on your genes. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/epigenetic-influences-and-disease-895/ https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/07/170717100548.htm
To answer your second question, due to alternative splicing, it is possible for an exon to be represented as an intron in different transcripts of a protein. Source: https://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc731/transcript/transcript5.htm#:~:text=Alternative%20splicing%20events%20can%20form,an%20intron%20in%20another%20transcript.
1) What is the difference between a promoter and a start codon, and a terminator and a stop codon? 2) What environmental factors directly affect acetylation/methylation patterns, and how? 3) Could someone please explain mRNA splicing/alternate splicing? I am a little bit confused on how this works.
In response to your first question, the difference between a promoter and a start codon is that a promoter is a region of DNA where transcription starts and start codons are the first bases to be translated on an mRNA. https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/question-1-difference-promoter-start-codon-o--promoters-present-5-cap-remain-untranslated--q37038554 The difference between a terminator and a stop codon is that a terminator codon such like UAG, UGA, or UAA marks the end of translation. Whereas a stop codon would be located on a mRNA strand and marks the end of a certain gene. http://staff.um.edu.mt/acus1/4genfunction.htm
To help answer your 3rd question, here is a website with details on what mRNA splicing is and how it works: https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Ancillary_Materials/Worksheets/Biology_Tutorials/mRNA_Splicing
In general the most prominent factors, for your second question, are temperature, nutrient supply, heavy metal, early stress and radiation. This article goes more in depth on these https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23853354/#:~:text=This%20article%20focused%20on%20the,also%20their%20behavior%20and%20phenotype.
1. What is the purpose of the "promoter-proximal elements"? 2. What causes methylation or acetylation to occur? 3. What causes enhancers or silencers to bind to the DNA?
To answer your first question, I found this website: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/eukaryotic-transcription-gene-regulation/ Eukaryotes, in addition to RNA polymerase, need other proteins to bind to DNA sequences in order for transcription to be initiated. These proteins are called transcription factors. "General transcription factors" assist with the binding of RNA polymerase and are nearest to the promoter region, while "specific transcription factors" are further from the region and help to regulate the activity of the RNA polymerase. Promoter-proximal elements are the binding sites for these transcription factors and are located the closest to the starting site of transcription. I hope that this helps!
For your third question, I found a couple websites that might help answer the question but I have been trying to find a way to answer your question I just cannot put them into words. Here are the links: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/eukaryotic-gene-regulation/#:~:text=When%20a%20DNA%20%2Dbending%20protein,binding%20of%20activating%20transcription%20factors. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/regulation-of-gene-expression-and-cell-specialization/a/eukaryotic-transcription-factors#:~:text=Key%20points%3A,activators%20boost%20a%20gene's%20transcription.&text=Groups%20of%20transcription%20factor%20binding,specific%20parts%20of%20the%20body.
For your second question, this source should explain it, I know it can explain it better than I could! https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130920094409.htm
1- Is there any way to artificially impact gene expression? 2- How and why are some genes ‘non-protien coding’ in other words what is their purpose? 3- What triggers either the addition or removal of acetyl groups from the histone tails?
In response to your first question, as far as I was able to see there is no way to artificially produce gene expression, only ways to change or increase it. Not all of gene expression is unchangeable, in fact a big part of gene expression is environmental, which is the easiest to control out of all of the variables that make up gene expression. I included a source that goes into detail about what can help naturally alter gene expression and how to monitor its effects, I hope this helps!
To add on to Emmaline's answer for your first question, I found that it is possible to artificially impact gene expression. In one article I read, it says that "There are many ways to decrease gene expression, but it's much harder to increase it in a targeted manner." Here are some articles about artificially impacting gene expression. https://news.mit.edu/2019/new-way-regulate-gene-expression-1209 https://www.cell.com/molecular-therapy-family/molecular-therapy/fulltext/S1525-0016(02)90610-6
In response to your second question, a massive percentage of our DNA is non coding, and if as much as 99% is non coding then most of it is completely necessary for the successful running of the human body. Much of it is integral, and perform important tasks such as controlling gene activity. Non coding DNA contain sequences that are there specifically to regulate when and where genes are to be turned on and off. Other non coding DNA also provides sites for specialized proteins to attach to during the transcription process. All in all, non coding DNA is vital to our bodies and how they function. I included a source explaining exactly what non coding DNA is, I hope this helps!
In response to your first question, as far as I was able to see there is no way to artificially produce gene expression, only ways to change or increase it. Part of gene expression is environmental, which is the easiest to control out of all of the variables that make up gene expression. I hope this helps!
1. What are common binding proteins/regulating proteins and their jobs in DNA sequencing? 2. Can someone explain the process of morphogens and how it regulates transcription factors? 3.How do epigenetic tags effect the development of specialized cells?
in response to your second question, morphogens are signaling molecules that cells directly induce distinct cellular responses in a concentration-dependent manner.
for more information, this source provides a good explanation of morphogens, https://dev.biologists.org/content/131/4/703
Question 1- Binding proteins are essential when it comes to transcription and of the packing of chromosomes. A binding protein is pretty much any protein that binds two or more molecules together.
In response to question 3, epigenetic tags are an integral part of the differentiation of cells, as they are required to regulate which genes are turned on or off within the cell during it's transition. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4783933/#:~:text=Epigenetics%20not%20only%20helps%20in,cell%20of%20a%20different%20lineage.
1. Is there anyway to forcibly have certain genes expressed using environmental components? 2. Would a gene be transcribed the same way repeatedly as the organism got older? 3. What would happen if gene transcription did not work correctly and the wrong gene was transcribed?
In response to your 3rd question, If gene transcription does not work correctly or a gene is transcribed wrong it can lead to mutations in the cell. These mutations may cause proteins to not be made properly or for the mutated DNA to be carried into the gamete effecting it in a possibly negative way.
For more information on mutations and how they occur, check this link: https://www.chapelhillisd.org/cms/lib6/TX01917727/Centricity/Domain/518/Mutations%20that%20happen%20during%20Transcription%20and%20Translation.pptx
In response to your second question, yes, genes will be transcribed in the same way as an organism ages. This is because methylation and acetylation only determine the genes that are transcribed and therefore expressed. The only time that the gene transcribed is changed is when there is a mutation in the DNA replication of the cell and the base pair order changes.
If you want more information on gene mutations and their effects, this link goes in depth on types, reasons, and effects. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-is-constantly-changing-through-the-process-6524898/
In response to your first question, many people have experimented gene expression and how to test what makes it express more or less. Many evnironmental components do force genes to express, to read more here's the source I found with the explanation, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4351803/
1. Does gene expression happen in prokaryotes as well, and would the process be much different? 2. How is it possible for such a small portion of our DNA (the protein coding part) to carry out everything that it does, considering that the coding DNA is only roughly 1% of all of our DNA? 3. What could one do to help alter or naturally change/increase gene expression to decrease their chances of getting handed down an illness from a parent, such as an auto-immune disease?
To answer your first question, prokaryotes can only regulate gene expression by controlling the amount of transcription. Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-gene-regulation/
To help answer your 1st question, gene expression does occur in prokaryotic cells but the control point is in the transcriptional level. In prokaryotic cells, regulation of gene expression is controlled by the amount of transcription.
For more information look here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-gene-regulation/#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20in%20prokaryotic%20cells%2C%20the,mostly%20at%20the%20transcriptional%20level.&text=The%20processes%20of%20transcription%20and%20translation%20are%20physically%20separated%20by,the%20nucleus%20in%20the%20cytoplasm.
To answer your third question, I am not sure there is anything you can do that strongly changes how you pass genes down but hopefully this source detailing how autoimmune disorders are passed down is useful. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130920094409.htm
To answer your second question it is incredible how our DNA is able to do that and hopefully this source can help, it goes more in detail on how the protein coding potion works but more importantly, how th noncoding portion works. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/basics/noncodingdna/
To answer your 3rd question, epigenetics is the study of heritable traits that does not involve changes to the DNA
Here is a website for more details:https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/fundamentals/#:~:text=Epigenetics%20is%20the%20study%20of,how%20cells%20read%20the%20genes.
1。What other things tie in to gene expression from diet and activity? 2。Are there any genes that cannot be turned back on after being turned off? 3。How many genes in the human body are not expressed? Is it possible for them all to be on at the same time?
3- There are at least 98% of our genetic code that isn't being utilized. If all of our genes were switched on there wouldn't be specialized tissue of any sort. I'm not even totally sure what would happen. I don't think we could function at all. This question kind of sent me on a whole train of thought but no I don't think it's possible, if it is it probably wouldn't go very well for us.
Question 1- I'm not sure if I understand what you're asking, but I'll give it my best shot anyways. To put it simply, our body needs energy to complete all of our most basic functions. Therefore, we need to consume sugars, carbs, fats, etc. in order to obtain proper energy. We need this energy from food in order for DNA to replicate and for the processes of transcription and translation to occur. Therefore, our diet and our gene expression are very closely related and are dependent upon one another.
2- I hope I'm understanding your question right. If I am understanding then the answer is no. I'm assuming you're specifically referring to identical twins. They share the same exact DNA but as they experience different things and are exposed to different variable their genes will adjust uniquely. It's all just methylation from what I know.
The answer to your second question is a lot to explain, so this source will help- it can explain it much better than I myself can, and I hope it helps; https://academic.oup.com/ageing/article/41/5/581/47543
1. I know behavior and environment is why methylation occurs, and I know a methyl group is added. I just don't understand why. How does it make things pack in tighter? 2.What studies and strategies have they used to study epigenics other than with twins? 3. So identical twins have the same genes. That doesn't mean all these necessarily express themselves the same though does it? Once they've been born they already can be exposed to different things. Could methylation start in infancy, and with that cause the twins to look less alike and such?
Question 3- From what I understood of the DBQ's from yesterday, yes, methylation in combination with time and exposure to different environments can cause twins to slowly look less and less alike.
In response to question 1, based on the diagrams we've seen so far, it is because of the structure of the methyl groups being easily flattened together in a way that makes the storage of the nucleosomes much more compact, much like how saturated fats can stay compact.
3- epigenetics is simply the study of your genes, specifically though, the way behaviors and environments impact gene expression. It involves methylation, acetylation, suppressed genes (reversible), the reading of the DNA sequence, and other such things that are tied into it.
1) What are ways our environment can affect the process of methylation? 2) How can broadening our understanding of epigenetics help advance all of science? 3) What would happen if telomeres weren't capable of doing their function?
In response to question 1, consider type 2 diabetes. The illness is caused by environmental factors that cause insulin production to decrease production of insulin or resist it outright, which could be a sign of methylation taking place within the cells that once made insulin that prevent them from doing so now.
1. What are some examples of genes that can go through methylation during our lifetime? 2. How are the sequences of mRNA identified to be removed before leaving the nucleus? 3. What is an example of multiple proteins coded by a single gene?
1. Is there a limit to the number of proteins encoded onto a strand of mRNA?
ReplyDelete2. To what extent has the environment been proven to alter genetic expression?
3. Can the editing of mRNA result in the correction of improperly formed mRNA?
3.
To answer your second question, it can affect gene expression greatly. An example was shown in the textbook as the siamese cats gene expression is changed due to temperature. This results in the unique fur pattern that the cat has.
DeleteIn regards to your third question, I found an article that talks about the fact that RNA polymerase is prone to making mistakes, approximately once every 1,000 bases. However, RNA polymerase is also very good at fixing these mistakes in the initial transcription process, before the mistakes get sent out as mature mRNA. It's hypothesized that RNAP can back up on the DNA helix and fix the wrong base pairs. RNAP has been observed to take many pauses during these turns, supposedly to fix these errors. THe article link: https://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/december3/rna-123.html However, mistakes that get past this will likely end up producing proteins that either can't be translated or are translated incorrectly, resulting it mutations that can have major medical consequences. I found a good summary of what occurs during post-transcriptional modification on https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/transcription-and-rna-processing/a/eukaryotic-pre-mrna-processing, but I couldn't find a process that specifically corrects errors in the code in mRNA.
Delete1. To what extent does can the environment affect the expression of genes?
ReplyDelete2. Why has gene expression which is dependent on the environment evolved?
3. Are there any treatments which put the human body through stress as to allow for a difference in the genes that are expressed?
To answer your first question, the ability of the environment to effect gene expression is so minute that for a very long time it has been considered impossible, and still is by many today. Only be recent data has it been found there is a possibility that this can sometimes occur. It is unlikely enough that the environment for the most part won't have any kind of notable impact on one's heredity.
DeleteTo answer your second question, if I am understanding it right, is based on natural selection. Animals that could not adapt and change to their environment could not survive so gene expression would have to not be a permanent thing or else nothing would survive. That answer is a little bit reductionist, but that is how I understand it.
DeleteIn response to your third question, I was unable to find treatments that caused a difference in gene expression. However, there are multiple diseases that are caused by changes in epigenetic factors. Examples of these diseases are autoimmune disorders, bone or skin disease, or cancer. Due to the changes in epigenetic factors traditional medicine and therapies do not work properly. This has led to scientists testing for an individual's epigenetic alterations and adjusting the treatment to the individual's genomic profile.
Deletehttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4315318/
1. What is the purpose of introns?
ReplyDelete2. Does transcription and translation occurring close together in prokaryotes lead to issues or is it equally as effective as in Eukaryotes?
3. What signals the end of the adenine tail when transcribing mRNA?
To answer your first question, there are many functions for introns, but the most common ones that I'm finding are splicing, sequencing, and positioning. For more functions: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3325483/
DeleteTo answer your third question, The adenine tail is added to signal the mRNA that it is ready to leave through a nuclear pore. The poly A tail is not added one by one but rather a chain of 100-250 residues is added to the end of the mRNA through the addition of a poly-A polymerase.
DeleteFor your first question, I found a great biology website that defines introns and explains their functions really well! Here is the link:
Deletehttps://biologydictionary.net/intron/
To aid the answers that people have given for your 1st question, here is a website that I found that defines and gives an illustration of an Intron:
Deletehttps://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Intron
From what I can find, for your second question, this does not affect accuracy of translation, which makes sense because if there were a more accurate method, the less accurate one would have likely evolved differently to maximize efficiency. This website tells of other problems that can occur with accuracy and speed https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:854919/INSIDE01.pdf
Delete1) What kind of environmental conditions severely affect the regulation of genes?
ReplyDelete2) Is it possible for an offspring to "reprogram" DNA os are they simply stuck with the mutation?
3) Is DNA transcription very different in prokaryotic cells? If so what steps are different?
To answer your third question, there are no significant differences accept transcription and translation can happen at the same time and they occur in the same place (the cytoplasm).
DeleteTo answer your second question, the offspring of a genetic mutation are able to reprogram mutations. The process is called reverse mutation and it can be either be a change of proteins or a change in nucleotides.
Deletehttps://www.britannica.com/science/heredity-genetics/Mechanisms-of-mutation#ref50805
For your first question I found that environmental factors such as temperature, oxygen levels, humidity, light, and diet can all impact gene regulation.
DeleteHere is a link that goes into more detail:
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/environment-controls-gene-expression-sex-determination-and-982/#:~:text=Environmental%20factors%20such%20as%20diet,ultimately%20affects%20the%20animal's%20phenotype.
1. Is there anyway that the environmental effects on genes can be undone?
ReplyDelete2. How many proteins can a single gene code for?
3. what would happen if the promoter sequence of a gene was damaged?
In response to your first question, yes the environmental effect on genes can be reversed. Epigenetics and environmental factors that change gene expression do not change the DNA sequence, only the way the sequence is read.
Deletehttps://www.cdc.gov/genomics/disease/epigenetics.htm#:~:text=Unlike%20genetic%20changes%2C%20epigenetic%20changes,body%20reads%20a%20DNA%20sequence.
To help answer your 2nd question, almost 70% of genes require at least 4 proteins each. This also is dependent on which section was removed. For more information look here: http://www.iecb.u-bordeaux.fr/index.php/en/news/99-plus-de-100-000-genes-dans-le-ble-environ-30-000-chez-lhomme-nouveaux-elements-pour-comprendre-comment-un-gene-peut-coder-pour-plusieurs-proteines#:~:text=Depending%20on%20the%20segments%20which,at%20least%204%20proteins%20each.
DeleteTo answer your third question, if the promoter sequence of a gene is damaged or there is a mutation, this is a problem because it is the sight that RNA polymerase binds to in order to start transcription. If RNA polymerase is unable to bind, transcription is unable to begin because RNAP synthesizes the RNA strand from the DNA strand. The gene likely will not make it into an mRNA strand and therefore won't be translated, which means the body is missing some of the proteins it needs. I hope this helps!
Delete1. Why did eukaryotes develop introns?
ReplyDelete2. Can the intron for one protein be an exon in another protein?
3. How common is it for an epigenetic factor to be passed down to a child?
In response to your first question, I found that eukaryotic cells need introns in order for the cell to produce multiple different types of proteins. This website goes into great detail about introns :)
Deletehttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4742320/#:~:text=Introns%20are%20crucial%20because%20the,gene%20in%20a%20eukaryotic%20cell.
For your third question, I was looking to find a percentage but instead found that it is indeed quite common. I also found a couple of websites to support and go into detail a lot of the effects the environment has on your genes. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/epigenetic-influences-and-disease-895/
Deletehttps://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/07/170717100548.htm
To answer your second question, due to alternative splicing, it is possible for an exon to be represented as an intron in different transcripts of a protein.
DeleteSource: https://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc731/transcript/transcript5.htm#:~:text=Alternative%20splicing%20events%20can%20form,an%20intron%20in%20another%20transcript.
1) What is the difference between a promoter and a start codon, and a terminator and a stop codon?
ReplyDelete2) What environmental factors directly affect acetylation/methylation patterns, and how?
3) Could someone please explain mRNA splicing/alternate splicing? I am a little bit confused on how this works.
In response to your first question, the difference between a promoter and a start codon is that a promoter is a region of DNA where transcription starts and start codons are the first bases to be translated on an mRNA. https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/question-1-difference-promoter-start-codon-o--promoters-present-5-cap-remain-untranslated--q37038554
DeleteThe difference between a terminator and a stop codon is that a terminator codon such like UAG, UGA, or UAA marks the end of translation. Whereas a stop codon would be located on a mRNA strand and marks the end of a certain gene. http://staff.um.edu.mt/acus1/4genfunction.htm
To help answer your 3rd question, here is a website with details on what mRNA splicing is and how it works:
Deletehttps://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Ancillary_Materials/Worksheets/Biology_Tutorials/mRNA_Splicing
In general the most prominent factors, for your second question, are temperature, nutrient supply, heavy metal, early stress and radiation. This article goes more in depth on these https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23853354/#:~:text=This%20article%20focused%20on%20the,also%20their%20behavior%20and%20phenotype.
Delete1. What is the purpose of the "promoter-proximal elements"?
ReplyDelete2. What causes methylation or acetylation to occur?
3. What causes enhancers or silencers to bind to the DNA?
To answer your first question, I found this website: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/eukaryotic-transcription-gene-regulation/ Eukaryotes, in addition to RNA polymerase, need other proteins to bind to DNA sequences in order for transcription to be initiated. These proteins are called transcription factors. "General transcription factors" assist with the binding of RNA polymerase and are nearest to the promoter region, while "specific transcription factors" are further from the region and help to regulate the activity of the RNA polymerase. Promoter-proximal elements are the binding sites for these transcription factors and are located the closest to the starting site of transcription. I hope that this helps!
DeleteFor your third question, I found a couple websites that might help answer the question but I have been trying to find a way to answer your question I just cannot put them into words. Here are the links:
Deletehttps://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/eukaryotic-gene-regulation/#:~:text=When%20a%20DNA%20%2Dbending%20protein,binding%20of%20activating%20transcription%20factors.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/regulation-of-gene-expression-and-cell-specialization/a/eukaryotic-transcription-factors#:~:text=Key%20points%3A,activators%20boost%20a%20gene's%20transcription.&text=Groups%20of%20transcription%20factor%20binding,specific%20parts%20of%20the%20body.
For your second question, this source should explain it, I know it can explain it better than I could! https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130920094409.htm
Delete1- Is there any way to artificially impact gene expression?
ReplyDelete2- How and why are some genes ‘non-protien coding’ in other words what is their purpose?
3- What triggers either the addition or removal of acetyl groups from the histone tails?
In response to your first question, as far as I was able to see there is no way to artificially produce gene expression, only ways to change or increase it. Not all of gene expression is unchangeable, in fact a big part of gene expression is environmental, which is the easiest to control out of all of the variables that make up gene expression. I included a source that goes into detail about what can help naturally alter gene expression and how to monitor its effects, I hope this helps!
DeleteSource:
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3916656/
To add on to Emmaline's answer for your first question, I found that it is possible to artificially impact gene expression. In one article I read, it says that "There are many ways to decrease gene expression, but it's much harder to increase it in a targeted manner."
DeleteHere are some articles about artificially impacting gene expression.
https://news.mit.edu/2019/new-way-regulate-gene-expression-1209
https://www.cell.com/molecular-therapy-family/molecular-therapy/fulltext/S1525-0016(02)90610-6
In response to your second question, a massive percentage of our DNA is non coding, and if as much as 99% is non coding then most of it is completely necessary for the successful running of the human body. Much of it is integral, and perform important tasks such as controlling gene activity. Non coding DNA contain sequences that are there specifically to regulate when and where genes are to be turned on and off. Other non coding DNA also provides sites for specialized proteins to attach to during the transcription process. All in all, non coding DNA is vital to our bodies and how they function. I included a source explaining exactly what non coding DNA is, I hope this helps!
DeleteSource:
https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/basics/noncodingdna/#:~:text=Only%20about%201%20percent%20of,other%2099%20percent%20is%20noncoding.
In response to your first question, as far as I was able to see there is no way to artificially produce gene expression, only ways to change or increase it. Part of gene expression is environmental, which is the easiest to control out of all of the variables that make up gene expression. I hope this helps!
ReplyDeleteSource:
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3916656/
1. What are common binding proteins/regulating proteins and their jobs in DNA sequencing?
ReplyDelete2. Can someone explain the process of morphogens and how it regulates transcription factors?
3.How do epigenetic tags effect the development of specialized cells?
in response to your second question, morphogens are signaling molecules that cells directly induce distinct cellular responses in a concentration-dependent manner.
Deletefor more information, this source provides a good explanation of morphogens, https://dev.biologists.org/content/131/4/703
Question 1- Binding proteins are essential when it comes to transcription and of the packing of chromosomes. A binding protein is pretty much any protein that binds two or more molecules together.
DeleteIn response to question 3, epigenetic tags are an integral part of the differentiation of cells, as they are required to regulate which genes are turned on or off within the cell during it's transition.
Deletehttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4783933/#:~:text=Epigenetics%20not%20only%20helps%20in,cell%20of%20a%20different%20lineage.
1. Is there anyway to forcibly have certain genes expressed using environmental components?
ReplyDelete2. Would a gene be transcribed the same way repeatedly as the organism got older?
3. What would happen if gene transcription did not work correctly and the wrong gene was transcribed?
In response to your 3rd question, If gene transcription does not work correctly or a gene is transcribed wrong it can lead to mutations in the cell. These mutations may cause proteins to not be made properly or for the mutated DNA to be carried into the gamete effecting it in a possibly negative way.
DeleteFor more information on mutations and how they occur, check this link:
https://www.chapelhillisd.org/cms/lib6/TX01917727/Centricity/Domain/518/Mutations%20that%20happen%20during%20Transcription%20and%20Translation.pptx
In response to your second question, yes, genes will be transcribed in the same way as an organism ages. This is because methylation and acetylation only determine the genes that are transcribed and therefore expressed. The only time that the gene transcribed is changed is when there is a mutation in the DNA replication of the cell and the base pair order changes.
DeleteIf you want more information on gene mutations and their effects, this link goes in depth on types, reasons, and effects. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-is-constantly-changing-through-the-process-6524898/
In response to your first question, many people have experimented gene expression and how to test what makes it express more or less. Many evnironmental components do force genes to express, to read more here's the source I found with the explanation, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4351803/
Delete1. Does gene expression happen in prokaryotes as well, and would the process be much different?
ReplyDelete2. How is it possible for such a small portion of our DNA (the protein coding part) to carry out everything that it does, considering that the coding DNA is only roughly 1% of all of our DNA?
3. What could one do to help alter or naturally change/increase gene expression to decrease their chances of getting handed down an illness from a parent, such as an auto-immune disease?
To answer your first question, prokaryotes can only regulate gene expression by controlling the amount of transcription.
DeleteSource: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-gene-regulation/
To help answer your 1st question, gene expression does occur in prokaryotic cells but the control point is in the transcriptional level. In prokaryotic cells, regulation of gene expression is controlled by the amount of transcription.
DeleteFor more information look here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-gene-regulation/#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20in%20prokaryotic%20cells%2C%20the,mostly%20at%20the%20transcriptional%20level.&text=The%20processes%20of%20transcription%20and%20translation%20are%20physically%20separated%20by,the%20nucleus%20in%20the%20cytoplasm.
To answer your third question, I am not sure there is anything you can do that strongly changes how you pass genes down but hopefully this source detailing how autoimmune disorders are passed down is useful. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130920094409.htm
DeleteTo answer your second question it is incredible how our DNA is able to do that and hopefully this source can help, it goes more in detail on how the protein coding potion works but more importantly, how th noncoding portion works. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/basics/noncodingdna/
DeleteTo answer your 3rd question, epigenetics is the study of heritable traits that does not involve changes to the DNA
ReplyDeleteHere is a website for more details:https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/fundamentals/#:~:text=Epigenetics%20is%20the%20study%20of,how%20cells%20read%20the%20genes.
1。What other things tie in to gene expression from diet and activity?
ReplyDelete2。Are there any genes that cannot be turned back on after being turned off?
3。How many genes in the human body are not expressed? Is it possible for them all to be on at the same time?
3- There are at least 98% of our genetic code that isn't being utilized. If all of our genes were switched on there wouldn't be specialized tissue of any sort. I'm not even totally sure what would happen. I don't think we could function at all. This question kind of sent me on a whole train of thought but no I don't think it's possible, if it is it probably wouldn't go very well for us.
DeleteQuestion 1- I'm not sure if I understand what you're asking, but I'll give it my best shot anyways. To put it simply, our body needs energy to complete all of our most basic functions. Therefore, we need to consume sugars, carbs, fats, etc. in order to obtain proper energy. We need this energy from food in order for DNA to replicate and for the processes of transcription and translation to occur. Therefore, our diet and our gene expression are very closely related and are dependent upon one another.
DeleteThis comment has been removed by the author.
ReplyDelete2- I hope I'm understanding your question right. If I am understanding then the answer is no. I'm assuming you're specifically referring to identical twins. They share the same exact DNA but as they experience different things and are exposed to different variable their genes will adjust uniquely. It's all just methylation from what I know.
ReplyDeleteThe answer to your second question is a lot to explain, so this source will help- it can explain it much better than I myself can, and I hope it helps; https://academic.oup.com/ageing/article/41/5/581/47543
ReplyDelete1. I know behavior and environment is why methylation occurs, and I know a methyl group is added. I just don't understand why. How does it make things pack in tighter?
ReplyDelete2.What studies and strategies have they used to study epigenics other than with twins?
3. So identical twins have the same genes. That doesn't mean all these necessarily express themselves the same though does it? Once they've been born they already can be exposed to different things. Could methylation start in infancy, and with that cause the twins to look less alike and such?
Question 3- From what I understood of the DBQ's from yesterday, yes, methylation in combination with time and exposure to different environments can cause twins to slowly look less and less alike.
DeleteIn response to question 1, based on the diagrams we've seen so far, it is because of the structure of the methyl groups being easily flattened together in a way that makes the storage of the nucleosomes much more compact, much like how saturated fats can stay compact.
Delete3- epigenetics is simply the study of your genes, specifically though, the way behaviors and environments impact gene expression. It involves methylation, acetylation, suppressed genes (reversible), the reading of the DNA sequence, and other such things that are tied into it.
ReplyDelete1) What are ways our environment can affect the process of methylation?
ReplyDelete2) How can broadening our understanding of epigenetics help advance all of science?
3) What would happen if telomeres weren't capable of doing their function?
In response to question 1, consider type 2 diabetes. The illness is caused by environmental factors that cause insulin production to decrease production of insulin or resist it outright, which could be a sign of methylation taking place within the cells that once made insulin that prevent them from doing so now.
Delete1. What are some examples of genes that can go through methylation during our lifetime?
ReplyDelete2. How are the sequences of mRNA identified to be removed before leaving the nucleus?
3. What is an example of multiple proteins coded by a single gene?