TOPIC 1.2 - DPBioY1
2 Marks - Your Questions
3 Marks - 3 Thoughtful Responses to Help Others
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7 Total marks
Textbook Link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B5dgiSZpFkXza0RJVUF2SWotZUk/view?usp=sharing
Powerpoint Link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/15T_xh403ceuQRDFAtGapjRCRU4-mr9bv/view?usp=sharing
Student Sheet Link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1HMe1gCSrjt4pmxwgQNNjdNH5gWh47CsQ/view?usp=sharing
1) Im not completely sure how you would deduce the function of a cell, could anyone explain how they are carrying this out?
ReplyDelete2) Can anyone help with ientifying structures in a cell when the surrounding area is darker?
3) Why don't prokaryotic cells have compartements and would they be better off if they did?
To answer your first question, to determine how the cell has been specialized you have to look at the overall structure of the cell and what organelles they have. The first step is to determine if they are a plant or animal cell that can largely change what their function is. The you have to look at what organelles are present and the quantity that they are present to. For example, if the cell has a lot of vacuoles then it is safe to assume that the cell is used for storage. Another important thing to note is where the organelle is compared to the rest of the cell. When you have all of these components you can make a safe assumption on what the cell does.
DeleteTo answer your 1st question, you can attempt to deduce the function of a cell based on the relative abundance of organelles that can be identified within a cell's micrograph. An example would be, if a cell has an abundance of mitochondria it can be assumed that it frequently undertakes energy-consuming process, identifying it as a cell akin to a muscle cell or neuron
DeleteThe source of this information can be found here: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-1-cell-biology/12-ultrastructure-of-cells/cell-micrographs.html
Addressing your third question, it is most likely because Prokaryotic cells are much simpler cells that have lasted on Earth much longer than eukaryotic cells and, while they may have a good use for such implementation, never needed to evolve to include that function.
DeleteFor question 3, They do not have compartments because they do not contain organelles. It is arguable that it would be better because then they would have to adapt to the requirement of producing more energy to fuel and create those organelles. The cell is also fully capable of creating atp from only the cytoplasm as that allow will allow it to breakdown the monosaccharides into 2 atp which can sustain life. And if a cell is already thriving or survivng in a habitat it's less likely to change. Resource
ReplyDeletehttps://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/bacteria-archaea/prokaryote-structure/a/prokaryote-structure
When you reply to comments, make sure to click the reply button near their comment instead of just leaving a comment. It will make the answer easier to find for them.
Delete1) What are ways cells can deal with extreme ph levels and maintain steady reactions?
ReplyDelete2)How can you tell the difference between the smooth E.R and the Rough E.R?
3) What sort of environmental pressures can lead a prokaryotic cell to evolve into a eukaryotic cell?
3)
For question 2, the Rough ER has membrane bound ribosomes attatched to the outer cytosolic side of the ER (making it look rough). The membrane bound ribosomes are responsible for the assembly of many proteins. The Rough ER works with the membrane bound ribosomes to make polypeptides and amino acids. The smooth ER has no ribosomes attatched to it and is for the most part only responsible for the production of lipids. If you want more in-detail information here is a website that I found helpful. https://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/endoplasmic-reticulum-rough-and-smooth/
DeleteFor question 1, The cell goes through extreme lengths to keep the pH levels even and when it starts getting too much it works faster. we rid of the water through breathing, sweating, and urnating at the least. With more water you will more than likely sweat and urinate much more.
Deletehttps://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2016/03/11/how-our-bodies-go-to-extraordinary-lengths-to-maintain-safe-ph-levels/#59d200b770e5
For question 3, environmental pressures could include the changing environment or a lack of nutrition. A heterotrophic prokaryote might need nutrition so it engulfs a smaller prokaryote. This is also considered the endosymbiotic theory, where a larger heterotrophic and anaerobic prokaryote engulfed an aerobic prokaryote and the two formed a symbiotic relationship out of necessity to stay alive. This is how the mitochondria came to be. It is also possible that an anaerobic prokaryote engulfed a photosynthetic prokaryote which would result in the chloroplast. Another environmental pressure could be that the anaerobic prokaryotes are in danger of dying due to the increasing levels of oxygen in the atmosphere, so it forms the relationship with the aerobic prokaryote and survives the oxygen increase.
DeleteYou can find more information here:
https://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/N100/2k2endosymb.html
1. What factors could potentially stop a prokaryotic cell from following through with binary fission?
ReplyDelete2. I can't seem to find in depth information on the purpose of the golgi apparatus other than the vague idea of packaging proteins, so let me know if you have a more detailed resource
3. When cells have specialized responsibilities, do they still contain all of the kinds of organelles? How does that vary with different kinds of cells?
For 3, Cells which are specialized contain different type of organelles and contain the organelles in different quantity. For instance muscle cells have multiple nuclei which allows for more protein to be made. Reference
Deletehttps://www.texasgateway.org/resource/cell-specialization-and-differentiation#:~:text=Multicellular%20organisms%20need%20many%20different,it%20perform%20a%20specific%20function.&text=Cell%20differentiation%20is%20the%20process,order%20to%20perform%20different%20functions.
To answer your 2nd question, the main function of the golgi apparatus is to collect, package, and transport molecules. The golgi apparatus packages the proteins membrane sacs called vesicles which then exit either side of the golgi apparatus and are transported somewhere in the cell or shipped out. Not only does the golgi package and transport proteins, but it also transports lipids around the cells and helps in the creation of lysosomes. The packaging process is something like this: vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum attach to the golgi apparatus and move through the golgi and in the process get packaged. After the vesicles are packaged they are sent to wherever they are needed. The golgi apparatus is made of five functional regions: the cis-Golgi network, cis-Golgi, medial-Golgi, trans-Golgi, and trans-Golgi network. The vesicles attach to the cis-Golgi network and move through to the trans-Golgi where it is packaged. Each of the five functional regions have specific enzymes that modify the vesicle contents based on its destination.
DeleteMore information can be found at these sources:
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology/golgi.html
https://www.britannica.com/science/Golgi-apparatus
Hope this helps!
To give an answer to your 1st question, one factor that could stop a prokaryotic cell from following through with binary fission is by reaching the carrying capacity of their environment, which is the maximum amount of organisms an environment can support. Furthermore, the carrying capacity of an environment is controlled by varying things such as food, space, and waste.
DeleteFurther details can be viewed within this source:
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-limits-cell-division.html
1. How specifically do you determine functions of cells based on electron micrographs? Are there specific things I should look for?
ReplyDelete2. How, if at all, is binary fission different from mitosis, if they are in fact the same, then why would we say 1 over the other?
3. What could happen if the cell wall or cell membrane was damaged or punctured? Could the cell heal itself or would it result in the death of the cell?
For 3, They can heal non-major tears in the cell membrane however with major tears it will tear open and pop like a balloon. They heal themselves by patching up the hole with material and sometimes can give off membrane parts from organelles to do so. Some cells cannot regenerate the parts which were lost which will lead it having to start from scratch. I hope this answered your question. Reference
Deletehttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5664224/
For quesiton 2, Binary fission is very similar to mitosis but binary fission is when the cell does not have a nucleus and in mitosis the cell does.
Deletehttps://www.thoughtco.com/binary-fission-vs-mitosis-similarities-and-differences-4170307#:~:text=The%20Main%20Difference%20Between%20Binary%20Fission%20and%20Mitosis&text=Another%20way%20to%20look%20at,divides%20does%20possess%20a%20nucleus.
For your first question, Kayleigh asked a similar question and I gave my tips and tricks for that. So you can find my response there
DeleteFor your second question I found a website that explains the differences between binary fission and mitosis in an easy to understand way. It talks about how they are different because prokaryotes don't have a true nucleus like eukaryotes do which makes the process different.
Deletehttps://biologydictionary.net/difference-binary-fission-mitosis/#:~:text=Mitosis%20is%20cell%20division%20that,the%20nucleus%20during%20binary%20fission.
1. I don't fully understand how cell walls are formed
ReplyDelete2. If prokaryotic cells do not have organelles, how do they function?
3. Is it possible for electron microscopes to get even more magnification than what they already can do?
For your first question I found that cell walls begin to form during the cytokinesis phase of cell division. During this phase the middle cell of the plate go out to form the primary cell wall. The cell wall is then assembled by the deposition of cellulose polymers.
DeleteHere is the site I looked at:
https://www.intechopen.com/books/polymerization/plant-cell-wall-polymers-function-structure-and-biological-activity-of-their-derivatives
Hope this helped :)
In response to your second question, prokaryotic cells have networks of membranes that help them do basic cell functions like photosynthesis and cellular respiration. It use of a cell wall protect it from outside sources and it's plasma membrane helps the organism "communicate". Most prokaryotes also have ribosomes (though they are not bound by a membrane) that help them carry out cell functions as well. Not as efficient as animal cells but gets the job done.
Deletehttps://basicbiology.net/micro/cells/prokaryotic-cells#:~:text=Prokaryotic%20cells%20don't%20have%20organelles&text=Some%20specialised%20prokaryotic%20cells%20do,as%20photosynthesis%20and%20cellular%20respiration.
to answer your first question i found a website that explains how plant cell walls are made.
Deletehttps://www.intechopen.com/books/polymerization/plant-cell-wall-polymers-function-structure-and-biological-activity-of-their-derivatives
Unit 1.2 questions:
ReplyDelete1. When were eukaryotic cells first discovered?
2. What type of substances does the cell membrane protect the inside of the cell from?
3. In the Golgi Apparatus how are the flattened membrane sacs also know as cristae, created?
To answer your first question, the first eukaryotic cells started to form around 2 billion years ago but they were not discovered until the 1960s by Edouard Chatton who first used the term eukaryotic. From there many other scientist also attruibuted to the study and discover of the eukaryotes we know today.
Deletehttps://mmbr.asm.org/content/69/2/292
The cell membrane will not allow charged atoms or molecules, of any size, into the cell. The only way a charged atom or molecule could enter the cell is through a membrane protein if the cell needs that atom or molecule to survive.
DeleteI could not find a specific atom or molecule the cell membrane protects the cell from, but if you would like to know more about membrane transport and why certain things enter the cell this website goes into detail on it. https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/the-cell-membrane/#:~:text=Charged%20atoms%20or%20molecules%20of,interior%20of%20the%20phospholipid%20bilayer.
To answer your first question I found a website that talks about the development of eukaryotic cells 2.7 billion years ago.
Deletehttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9841/#:~:text=The%20eukaryotes%20developed%20at%20least,billion%20years%20of%20prokaryotic%20evolution.
1. Is there anything with a shorter wavelength than electrons that could increase the magnification of microscopes?
ReplyDelete2. Why are prokaryotes referred to as being "extracellular"? Does it have something to do with the peptidoglycan in its cell wall?
3. Can prokaryotes have 80S ribosomes and can eukaryotes have 70S ribosomes?
For question 3, 70S ribosomes can be found in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells. This is thought to be due to the endosymbiotic theory.
DeleteOn the other hand, prokaryotes cannot have 80S ribosomes.
Source: https://www.microscopemaster.com/ribosomes.html
You can find more information on the endosymbiotic theory at these sources: https://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/N100/2k2endosymb.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FGnS-Xk0ZqU&vl=en
To answer your first question, I could not find anything on shortening the wavelength to get a higher solution. However, I was able to find information on other types of microscopes being used. One problem with microscopes is that no matter what you improve you are sacrificing something else, for example to use an electron microscope the subject must be dead. There are forms of microscopes such as fluorescent microscopes that cannot see as much as electron microscopes, but it can view living specimens. There are many other types of microscopes, if you want to read more about them: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-03650-w
DeleteTo answer your 2nd question, prokaryotic cells are referred to as extracellular due to the special cellular features that help them respond to their environment, for example using a flagella to move around or towards food. It doesn't have much to do with the cell wall containing peptidoglycan, but rather that the cell wall is an extracellular matrix itself
DeleteThe information's source can be found here: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/cytoskeleton-junctions-and-extracellular-structures/a/the-extracellular-matrix-and-cell-wall
1. How is binary fission different from mitosis? Why is it different?
ReplyDelete2. How does the golgi apparatus create and then package the vesicles?
3. How do lysosomes fuse to an old or damaged organelle and what happens to the organelle after it is "digested"?
In response to your first question, binary fission is the asexual reproduction where a single cell creates a copy of itself (cellular cloning) whereas mitosis is the process of cell division where a cell splits into two identical daughter cells.
Deletehttps://biologydictionary.net/difference-binary-fission-mitosis/#:~:text=Binary%20fission%20is%20a%20method,create%20a%20copy%20of%20themselves.&text=Mitosis%20is%20cell%20division%20that,for%20growth%20of%20an%20organism.
In regards to question two, the Golgi apparatus collects simple molecules to eventually create large and complex molecules. The vesicles are where the complex molecules are packaged and stored in order to be transported out of the cell or to use at a later time.
Deletehttps://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/golgi-apparatus/
In response to your third question, an old or damaged organelle moves to the outer edge of the lysosome. Then the membrane of the lysosome opens up and the organelle enters the lysosome. The organelle gets broken like any other thing that would enter a lysosome. Here is the reference I used: https://study.com/academy/lesson/lysosome-definition-function-quiz.html
DeleteTo answer your first question, the main differences between binary fission and mitosis are that binary fission is a simpler and faster process, the DNA in binary fission attaches to the membrane to be pulled apart, whereas in mitosis spindle fibers pull them apart. Binary fission is also a less reliable method of reproduction. These differences occur because the prokaryote has no nucleus and no organelles and so it can occur faster and there is not additional help in the process.
ReplyDeleteSource: https://www.thoughtco.com/binary-fission-vs-mitosis-similarities-and-differences-4170307
When you reply to comments, make sure to click the reply button near their comment instead of just leaving a comment. It will make the answer easier to find for them.
Delete1. Why do beams of electrons having a shorter wavelength than light microscopes make the resolution higher on electron microscopes than a light microscope?
ReplyDelete2. Why is the cell wall in prokaryotes often referred to as extracellular?
3. In the textbook, it says that the digestive enzymes of a lysosome could digest and kill a cell if they weren’t safe inside the lysosome membrane. What is different between the lysosome membrane and the cell membrane so that the lysosome membrane can hold the digestive enzymes that could kill the cell and the cell membrane can’t?
To answer your third question, the lysosomal membrane is made up of specific proteins called lysosomal membrane proteins(LMPs). LMPs often are glycosylated and are believed to be involved with direct transport across the membrane.
DeleteThe cell membrane has many proteins as well. Cell membrane proteins work to transport particles across the membrane, recognize cells, anchor cells, and much more.
However, both membranes are primarily made up of phospholipids.
I found my information at these sources if you would like to learn more about the membranes. https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-1-cell-biology/13-membrane-structure/membrane-proteins.html
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/tra.12056
In response to your second question, a prokaryote's cell wall may be referred to as extracellular when the cell has made an extracellular(outside the cell) layer made of capsular polysaccharides. The additional layer can sometimes be beneficial but it can also be very dangerous.
DeleteThis is the link I used if you would like more information on the topic. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1945/
In response to your second question Jade, I found that the actual definition of extracellular is something situated or taking place outside of the cell. Therefore the cell wall in a prokaryotic cell is referred to as extracellular because of its location outside of the cell.
DeleteHope this helped :))
In response to your first question, while I couldn't a definite source, it is most likely because each wavelength of an electron beam covers less space than a beam of light, allowing for more details to be picked out into an image. This source may also help: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-cells/hs-introduction-to-cells/a/microscopy
DeleteThis comment has been removed by the author.
ReplyDelete1. How do you compare the genetic content of two identical daughter cells from the parent cell?
ReplyDelete2. Why do not all prokaryotic cells have ribosomes? what is an example of a prokaryotic cell with no ribosomes? how do they function without them?
3. Should scientist refer to prokaryotic cells as bacteria or should they use the proper term?
In reference to your first question, as the cells undergo mitosis, the pair of chromosomes that the parent cell holds gets copied and separates. Due to each daughter cell containing one half of the chromatid pair, the genetic content is identical. https://www.omicsonline.org/blog/2015/09/15/20424-How-do-daughter-cells-compare-to-the-parent-cell.html
DeleteTo answer your second question, I couldn't find an example of a prokaryotic cell without ribosomes, however, I did find out how they function without them. Prokaryotic cells that lack ribosomes, create more damage and are unable to restore worn out supplies because it requires proteins. If the cell is able to survive without proteins, it would be able to survive without ribosomes. It is, however, theorized that the earliest cells were able to reproduce without the use of proteins. I hope this helps.
DeleteI found my information on
https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/29879/can-cell-exist-without-ribosomes
In response to your third question, scientists shouldn't refer to prokaryotic cells as bacteria, and they should the proper term. The reason being that all prokaryotic cells are not bacteria.
DeleteTo add onto Arianna and answer your second question, while eukaryotic cells have a menbrane bound nucleus and very distinctive ribosomes, prokaryotic cells have neither, I do believe prokaryotic cells have ribosomes they are just considerably smaller and not found in a specific location in the cell. With eukaryotic cells ribosomes get their instruction for protein synthysis from the nucleus. Ribosomes are found in all cells but there are more and of the more they are larger in eukaryotic cells. Heres a website for more help!https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/a/nucleus-and-ribosomes
Delete1. How do organelles effectively compartmentalize to perform incompatible chemical reactions?
ReplyDelete2. Does the substance of the cell wall affect how the plant cell functions?
3. How does the lysosome know to self-destruct if the cell is damaged beyond repair?
In response to your second question Izzy, I found that all cell walls are composed of a network of cellulose microfibres. In regards to the actual substance affecting the cell function, I could not find information on that, but I did find that when a plant cell is filling its vacuoles with more water it loosens the cell wall so that the cell does not completely fill with the water it is consuming. I also found that cell wall expansion is caused by an acid-dependant activation that loosens the hydrogen-bonded cellulose that makes up the cell. Resulting in the expansion of the cell!
DeleteHere are the sites I looked at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26928/#:~:text=The%20cell%20wall%20is%20composed,walls%2C%20lignin%20may%20be%20deposited.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21709/#:~:text=Plant%20cells%20grow%20by%20localized,loosens%20hydrogen%2Dbonded%20cellulose%20microfibrils.
Sorry that was kinda a lot, but I hope that it helped :)
To answer your first question, Eukaryotic cells have different types of membranes around certain organelles, that are selective on what they allow in and out, like a gatekeeper. These membranes help the cell to know when to compartmentalize because it helps to react to the external environment. For example in neurons, the ATP has to travel down the length of the axon, however, it is quite long and cannot just rely on passive diffusion. So the mitochondria will break apart and create more across the axon to generate the ATP in different locations. I hope this helped to answer your question.
Deletehttps://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-membranes-14052567/
https://www.mechanobio.info/the-cell/compartmentalization-in-cells-2/
As an answer to your third question, it is most likely due to it detecting that the environment around it is highly damaged already, giving it enough time to self destruct it's membrane, releasing the enzymes that could allow the cell to decompose faster.
DeleteFor question 3, Electron microscopes provide higher magnification, higher resolution, and more detail than light microscopes.
ReplyDelete1) What makes the enzymes that are stored in lysosomes?
ReplyDelete2) What is the function of a vacuole in animal cells?
3) How do we know when the prokaryotic cells were made, how did scientists discover that?
In response to your second question, the function of a vacuole in animal cells is to store food and other nutrients. It also has the ability to store waste products if needed so that the rest of the cell won't be contaminated. Here is the reference I used: http://www.biology4kids.com/files/cell_vacuole.html#:~:text=Vacuoles%20are%20storage%20bubbles%20found,cell%20is%20protected%20from%20contamination.
DeleteIn response to your first question, the enzymes are proteins made in different parts of the cell that are transported to be stored in lysosomes. They are created by ribosomes in different cell organelles, such as the rough endoplasmic reticulem, the nucleus, mitochondria, and the cytosol. Where the enzyme is made depends on what it's purpose will be. For example, they would be made in the mitochondria if they were eventually needed for cellular respiration.
DeleteSources Used:
Deletehttps://www.rndsystems.com/research-area/lysosomal-enzymes#:~:text=Lysosomes%20are%20membrane%2Dbound%20vesicles,mannose%2D6%2Dphosphate%20label.
https://www.quora.com/Which-cell-organelles-produce-enzyme#:~:text=Enzymes%20are%20proteins%20with%20catalytic,endoplasmic%20reticulum%2C%20nucleus%20and%20mitochondria.
In regards to your second question, the two glands, the exocrine and the endocrine gland, both have a different function. The exocrine helps with the digestion, and the endocrine regulates blood sugar. Each are equally important to have.
ReplyDeletehttps://www.google.com/search?rlz=1CAQIMT_enUS811US811&ei=nUnuXs6YBe2w0PEPxq-KqAU&q=pancreas+gland+function&oq=pacreas+&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQARgBMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABAKMgQIABBDMgQIABAKMgQIABBDOgUIABCRAjoFCAAQsQM6AggAOgcIABCxAxBDUJV3WPmRAWDRoQFoA3AAeACAAXOIAaAIkgEDMi44mAEAoAEBqgEHZ3dzLXdperABAA&sclient=psy-ab&safe=active&ssui=on
1. Would it be possible to create a microscope with an even higher possible resolution than the electron microscope, or is the electron microscope the highest resolution we'll ever get?
ReplyDelete2. Are prokaryotes always smaller than eukaryotes (are there any significant exceptions?), and why are they always smaller?
3. If a prokaryote does not have flagella, how does it move? Would it adapt and find a new way to move?
To answer your second question, it is the norm that prokaryotes are significantly smaller than eukaryotes. This is because they have less DNA (only one circular chromosome usually), a rigid cell wall, and no compartmentalization (the extra room for organelles is not necessary). We also learned in the textbook that the DNA in a prokaryote is not related to the production of protein, which contributes to the cell's smaller size compared to eukaryotes with nuclei that do produce proteins for the cell. Overall, because prokaryotes have much simpler structures, they are generally much smaller https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/484664/19-why-are-prokaryotic-cells-generally-smaller-than-eukaryot
DeleteThere are some exceptions, like the Thiomargarita namibiensis, the largest prokaryote, and prasinophytes, the smallest eukaryotes.
Question 3- I answered another question similarly. I believe that since living things are constantly growing, changing, and adapting that it is likely that a prokaryote would find another way to move. Maybe it would develop flagellum or cilium because that is exactly what the prokaryote would need for optimum mobility and transport.
DeleteFor questions 1, there has yet to be a different kind of microscope other than an electron microscope with the highest resolution, but there are different kinds of electron microscopes with different levels of resolution. More information on the highest level microscope, (or at least one of the highest) is linked below.
Delete(Forgot to put the link)
Deletehttps://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080122154357.htm
1. When undergoing mitosis does a cell continue to carry out its function within a tissue or does it "shut down" to focus all energy on multiplying?
ReplyDelete2. Is there a criteria to be met when a cell begins mitosis (i.e. another cell has to die before a new cell can be created)?
3. Is there a microscope with a higher magnification than that of an electron microscope, or is an electron microscope the current upper limit?
In response to your first question, the cell will continue to perform its normal functions during interphase, specifically during the G1 phase. The cell will start to make preparation for the division and get larger during the synthesis phase of interphase, as the replication of the DNA commences. During the G2 phase the cell focuses more on its normal functions once more, but still growing to prep for the division. I was not able to find anything specifically stating that a cell continues its everyday functions during mitosis/cell division, but from what I have read it appears that the cell is often performing its function, with some energy being devoted to the duplication of DNA and the actual splitting of the cell during the process. I don't believe the cell ever really shuts down, as many of its functions keep it alive. The link below gives a pretty thorough description of cell growth and division, hopefully it helps!
Deletehttps://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/3-5-cell-growth-and-division/#:~:text=The%20two%20major%20phases%20of,%2C%20S%2C%20and%20G2%20phases.
To answer your second question, the cell's chromosomes have to be copied for the daughter cells to carry before the process of mitosis starts. It is important that both of the daughter cells hold identical chromosomes to give each a new set of chromosomes, which then helps the body with either repairing itself or replacing old ones. Once the chromosomes are copied, then they coil up and both consist of identical chromatids. Mitosis splits these chromatids up.
DeleteFor reference, here is the source i used to answer your question, https://www2.le.ac.uk/projects/vgec/schoolsandcolleges/topics/cellcycle-mitosis-meiosis#:~:text=In%20mitosis%20a%20cell%20divides,mitosis%2C%20the%20chromosomes%20are%20copied.
To answer your third question, the most powerful microscope is an electron microscope, but is has become more advanced. It can see down to almost 0.06 nanometers at a high resolution, while the classic electron microscope can see only 1 nanometer. It allows scientists to dinstinguish the smallest atoms in structures. This microscope can discover the ultrastructure of the smallest samples.
DeleteWhere I got the information: https://www.createdigital.org.au/australias-most-powerful-microscope-nanotechnology-tool/
1. Do the ribosomes attached to the rough ER function differently to any of the other ribosomes in the cell?
ReplyDelete2. How could the cell utilize proteins it sends outside of the cell membrane via the Golgi Apparatus?
3. How is an extracellular matrix connected to an animal cell?
In response to the third question, the extracellular matrix is typically attached to the cell wall of a cell. However, animal cells have no cell wall, only a membrane. On the surfaces of the cell's plasma membranes, they have protein receptors. When one of the molecules in the extracellular matrix makes contact with and binds to the protein receptor, the molecular structure of the receptor changes. When the receptor binds to the molecule from the matrix, it changes the microfilaments inside the cell membrane. These changes then set off chemical signals inside the cell that travel to the nucleus and trigger either the start of shut down of specific DNA transcriptions. This affects the protein production of the associated proteins and changes cell activities. Sorry, that was a little long, but I hope it helps!
DeleteHere are a couple sources with info on the extracellular matrix that I used for reference.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26810/
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/4%3A_Cell_Structure/5.6%3A_Connections_between_Cells_and_Cellular_Activities/5.6A%3A_Extracellular_Matrix_of_Animal_Cells
In regards to your first question, the ribosomes attatched to the ER don't necessarily function diffrent from the ribsomes that are detached. Both types of ribosomes make protein for the cell and body. However, the ribosomes attached to the ER makes protein for the use of the cell membrane, or the protein that is made is transferred to other parts of the body. The protein that is made by the detached from the ER are released directly into the cytoplasm for direct use of the cell.
DeleteI got my information from, https://sciencing.com/difference-between-attached-detached-ribosomes-8805.html
the article was written by Eric Bank, who is an Oncologist.
To answer your first question, I found a website that explains the connection between ribosomes and the rough ER well. The ribosomes on the ER are the same as the ribosomes in the cytoplasm; they just attach and detach themselves. Because the rough ER's job is to form and store proteins and ribosomes contribute to the translation process, the two then work together to synthesize proteins through translocons on the ER. Here is the link to the website for more detailed analysis, but I hope that answered your question! https://sciencing.com/rough-er-work-ribosomes-15057.html
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ReplyDelete1. We learned that each cell has all of the instructions/genes for the entire body but only expresses a select few. Does this mean that all cells know how to make all of the organelles but only include those necessary to the specialized cell? It's hard for me to wrap my mind around cell specialization and ultrastructure coming from the same DNA! Does this mean that a specialized cell is characterized by its ultrastructure?
ReplyDelete2. Why are cell walls needed in prokaryotes and plants to maintain structure? Also, plants are eukaryotic and have cell walls?
3. Why do prokaryotic cells have significantly less chromosomes than eukaryotic cells? Is it because they don't have organelles to manage?
4. What are the benefits of a double membrane?
In regards to your third question, ekaryotes wrap their DNA around a protein called histones. Prokaryotes do not have this, so to make up for it, they do what is called supercoiling. This causes them to wrap their DNA up into a super tight ball. This folds the chromosomes over one another over and over again, and sometimes can be bad in a sense that the double helix is folded in different ways. Also, prokaryotes contain singular circular chromosome while eukaryotes contain multiple linear chromosomes.
DeleteI got this information from: nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genome-packaging-in-prokaryotes-the-circular-chromosome-9113/
I hope these answers answered your question!
To answer your second question, both prokaryotic and plant cells have walls that help keep shape, structure, and protection as well as to help prevent dehydration. The cell wall is used to prevent the cell from bursting and overflowing with water content. Eukaryotic means “true nucleus,” which references the presence of the membrane-bound nucleus of cells. The reason for plant cells having cell walls and being considered eukaryotic is due to their membrane bound organelles, nucleus, and mitochondria. Prokaryotes DNA is stored in the cytoplasm and do not rely on membrane bound organelles to carry out their functions of life.
DeleteHope this helps!
https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/eukaryotic-cells
Question 4- The benefits of a double membrane specifically with the nucleus, is that it helps separate the chromosomes from the rest of the cell. With mitochondrion, it is important to have a double membrane because the folds in the inner membrane help create as much surface area as possible to help with the main function of the mitochondria which is called oxidative phosphorylation I believe.
DeleteIn regards to question 1 from what I understand yes all cells have the DNA to create all organelles needed and cells wold not be characterized by it ultra-structure.
Delete1. Was it questionable that there were more than one types of cells when it was first discovered? When was it accepted if it was?
ReplyDelete2. If the cell wall were to be punctured, would the cell work to heal itself, or would it die?
3. Hypothetically, is a cell's organelles did not have a protective membrane to protect the cell from their harmful substances, would the cell adapt to the substances, or would the cell die off/ cease to exist?
Question 3- I feel that initially it would be likely that the cell would die. However, living things are always changing, evolving, and adapting, so it's possible that with time the organelles would build some sort of resistance.
DeleteQuestion 2- I wasn't able to find any information about whether or not a cell is capable of repairing a minimally damaged cell wall, I'm not sure if that has been discovered. From what I could find if a cell wall is damaged the cell will die, often it will activate apoptosis knowing it cannot survive. If a cell has been punctured there is no way to protect the cell or it's contents, and it would spill out.
Deletehttps://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Book%3A_Microbiology_(Boundless)/4%3A_Cell_Structure_of_Bacteria%2C_Archaea%2C_and_Eukaryotes/4.4%3A_Cell_Walls_of_Prokaryotes/4.4F%3A_Damage_of_the_Cell_Wall#:~:text=Damage%20to%20the%20cell%20wall%20disturbs%20the%20state%20of%20cell,apoptosis%20or%20programmed%20cell%20death).&text=They%20also%20play%20an%20important,by%20environmental%20or%20antibiotic%20stress.
For question 2, although there is not yet information of specifically how cell do this, they are able to repair themselves by rebuilding the lost/damaged structures as long as the damages aren't fatal. Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5664224/#:~:text=Cells%20are%20generally%20soft%2C%20squishy,result%20of%20injury%20or%20pathology.
Delete1) How would the function of a eukaryotic cell decrease/change if it's ultrastructure was not complex?
ReplyDelete2) Is binary fission more efficient than any other type of reproduction? Why? Would any other kind even be possible with prokaryotes?
3) It is possible to use a microscope more advanced than an electron microscope? Is there one better as of now, or one that accomplishes different things?
Question 3- There are 2 main types of electron microscopes. The Scanning Electron Miscroscope (SEM) and the Transmission Electron Miscroscope (TEM). An SEM creates an image from reflected electrons off the sample. A TEM passes electrons through the sample to create an image. The specifics are complicated. There are incredibly powerful electron microscopes that have been created, they are always finding ways to improve. In 2009- "Lawrence Berkeley National Lab recently turned on a $27 million electron microscope. Its ability to make images to a resolution half the width of a hydrogen atom made it the most powerful microscope in the world." The goal is still the same, get as much detail and learn as much about cells, atoms, etc as we can.
Deletehttps://www.thermofisher.com/us/en/home/materials-science/learning-center/applications/sem-tem-difference.html
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081020120050.htm#:~:text=The%20most%20advanced%20and%20powerful,probe%20the%20spaces%20between%20atoms.
In regards to question 2, The way I see it binary fission is not more or less efficient just different as the cells are fundamentally different and need to go through different processes, also I do not believe that prokaryotes can do any other form of reproduction.
DeleteIn response to your first question, one of the main differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells is the eukaryotes complex, and importantly compartmentalized structure. On page 21 of the text book it describes the advantages of having a complex ultrastructure, simplified they are as follows. The enzymes and substrates due to being compartmentalized can be much more concentrated. If this were not the case then the cell would not be able to function as fast if the enzymes and substrates were spread throughout the cytoplasm (and not compartmentalized like in the complex untrastructure of eukaryotic cells). Also compartmentalization and complexity allows the cell to keep potentially damaging material inside the membrane of an organelle. Without this the cell could harm itself with it’s self created digestive enzymes. There are many other ways that the cell would not function as well if it didn’t have a complex ultrastructure but I believe those are the most impactful things. There is more information in the textbook on page 21 and also a website that goes into more detail of the ultrastructure of a eukaryotic cell. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/4%3A_Cell_Structure/4.3%3A_Eukaryotic_Cells/4.3A%3A_Characteristics_of_Eukaryotic_Cells
Delete1. How do prokaryotic cells function with only ribosomes in the cytoplasm?
ReplyDelete2. Does the small size of the prokaryotes relate to the fact that it doesn't have an organelles in the cytoplasm?
3. Is there a certain way in which eukaryotic cells compartmentalize?
Question 3- Yes, when they say eukaryotic cells compartmentalize they are referring to the many organelles throughout the cell. Most of these organelles have membranes surrounding themselves, separating them from the rest of the cells. The separation of the many structures within the cell is what they are talking about.
Delete1) Why did it take so many years for scientists and labs to implement the use of electron microscopes. Was it from doubt or simply a lack of proper resources?
ReplyDelete2)I had never heard about nuclear pores existing before now. I know the textbook says this is where mRNA is exported but does anyone have more information or details about them?
3)The textbook provided an example of the palisade mesophyll cells saying they carry out a majority of the photosynthesis. Does this mean many cells throughout the leaf have varying roles? What are other major things the leaf needs cells to get done?
The first electron microscope was invented in 1931, but they took a long time to become fairly common because of their uses and their costs. Today electron microscopes are getting close to a million dollars each, which for many labs isn't worth the benefits, especially since many studies don't require the incredibly tiny images produced by electron microscopes. Through the 60's and 70's, there became more uses for electron microscopes as technology continued developing, so they became more common to see in labs. more info: https://authors.library.caltech.edu/5456/1/hrst.mit.edu/hrs/materials/public/ElectronMicroscope/EM_HistOverview.htm#:~:text=Early%20History%20of%20Electron%20Microscopy,the%20limitations%20of%20visible%20light.
DeleteFor your second question, here is the link to that site: https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/nuclear-pore-279/#:~:text=The%20nuclear%20pore%20is%20a,surrounded%20by%20a%20nuclear%20envelope.
Delete1. what advantages do eukaryotic cells get by concentrating the enzymes?
ReplyDelete2. how do electron microscopes create the images produced?
3. what is the limit of the electron microscopes used currently?
For your third question, the limit is 10,000,000 magnification currently.
DeleteI found my info from: https://physics.aps.org/articles/v6/82
For your second question, the electron microscope shoots a beam of electrons that imprints onto an image below to show the cell.
DeleteI found my info from: https://www.explainthatstuff.com/electronmicroscopes.html#:~:text=A%20transmission%20electron%20microscope%20fires,electricity%20supply%20powers%20the%20cathode.&text=It%20generates%20a%20beam%20of,light%20in%20an%20optical%20microscope.
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ReplyDelete1. Whats the farthest limit for an average microscope?
ReplyDelete2. Is it possible that microscopes might be able to not see parts of the cell since they might be hidden
3. What happens if there is a mistake with the cell cycle and the cell keeps on growing?